Notes and Answers 165
Chapter 13: GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES
ORDER OF CHAPTER CHARTS EXERCISES WORKBOOK
Verbs gerunds and infinitives 13-1 → 13-4 Ex. 1 → 12 Pr. 1 → 7
Preposition gerund 13-5 Ex. 13 → 16 Pr. 8 → 9
Summary review Pr. 10 → 12
By vs. with 13-6 Ex. 17 → 19 Pr. 13 → 15
Using gerunds as subjects;
using it infinitive 13-7 → 13-8 Ex. 20 → 27 Pr. 16 → 17
In order to and for 13-9 Ex. 28 → 31 Pr. 18 → 20
Too and enough infinitive 13-10 Ex. 32 → 35 Pr. 21 → 22
Cumulative review Ex. 36 → 39 Pr. 23 → 25
Review of verb forms Ex. 40 → 41
General Notes on Chapter 13
• To this point in the text, the learners have focused on the forms of verbs used as the main
verb of a sentence or clause. In this chapter, students will learn other forms and uses of
verbs: gerunds and infinitives. The ability to use these verbals and their associated verbs is
indispensable; they are exceedingly common and very useful for students in expressing their
wants, needs, likes, dislikes, hopes, plans, attitudes, and activities.
• TERMINOLOGY: A gerund is sometimes called a “verbal noun.” Calling it merely “the
-ing form of a verb” invites confusion with the present participle, which has different
grammatical functions.
In this text, an infinitive is defined as to the simple form of a verb. The text does not
use the terms “to-less infinitive” or “base infinitive” or “the infinitive form without to” to
describe the verb form that follows, for example, modal auxiliaries (as in must go) or let’s (as
in let’s go). Rather, the text simply calls those the simple form of a verb. For students’
purposes, the simple form of the verb is defined as the form found in a dictionary listing
(Chart 2-6, p. 32).
□ EXERCISE 1, p. 369. Verb gerund. (Chart 13-1)
This exercise can be done without the students preparing it. Just ask them to call out
possible completions. Its intention is to get across the idea that one verb can immediately
follow another verb: i.e., that an -ing verb (a gerund) can follow a main verb.
You might also note for the students that gerunds, as verb forms, can be followed by
objects. In We postponed visiting the zoo, zoo is the object of the gerund visiting.
EXPECTED RESPONSES: 3. going to / driving to / flying to 4. washing / sweeping /
vacuuming / mopping / cleaning 5. doing / finishing / studying 6. snowing
7. reading / buying 8. taking / signing up for / registering for 9. looking for /
changing to 10. watching / playing / taking part in / reading about 11. visiting /
moving to / moving out of / traveling to 12. talking 13. working / painting / playing
14. closing / shutting / opening 15. attending / going to
□ EXERCISE 2, p. 370. Verb gerund. (Chart 13-1)
You might ask the students to do both: complete the dialogues by choosing from the given
phrases and also by using their own words.
ANSWERS: 2. buying a new car . . . getting a Toyota 3. reading a good book
4. smoking 5. trying 6. doing things . . . doing my homework 7. helping him
8. tapping your fingernails on the table 9. going to the zoo on Saturday
10. repeating that
166 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-1: VERB GERUND
• The verb gerund phrase is a source of errors for many students. Although relatively few verbs
are followed by gerunds, those phrases occur with some frequency in both spoken and written
English. It is easy for learners to confuse verb gerund phrases with verb infinitive phrases. For
example: I want to watch TV. I enjoy watching TV. Learners commonly mix these elements
and make errors such as the following:
INCORRECT: I enjoy to watch TV.
• The text presents a few common verbs and verb phrases followed by gerunds that students
might find useful. As their vocabularies grow, they will encounter other verbs followed by
gerunds, such as risk, resist, deny, delay. (See Understanding and Using English Grammar,Third
Edition, Chart 14-9, for a longer list of verbs followed by gerunds.) Here, however, the focus is
on only a few phrases as a starting point.
• You might want to note for the class that not all -ing verbs are gerunds; some are present participles.
I enjoy working gerund, used as a noun, in this case as the object of the verb.
(I subject; enjoy verb; working object)
I am working present participle.
(I subject; am working verb)
• Notes on the verbs listed in this chapter:
• stop can also be followed by an infinitive of purpose (see footnote p. 370 in the text):
Jane was walking home. When she saw a coin on the sidewalk, she stopped (in order) to
pick it up.
• keep and keep on have the same meaning when followed by a gerund.
• consider is followed by a gerund when it means “think about,” as in the example in the
text; it is followed by a (pro)noun object infinitive when it means “believe” (We consider
him to be our closest friend).
□ EXERCISE 3, p. 371. Verb gerund. (Chart 13-1)
Students can prepare their completions as homework or in groups or pairs. Elicit two or
three completions in class discussion: e.g., I enjoy buying clothes. I enjoy doing homework. I
enjoy eating chocolate. I enjoy exercising at the gym. Etc.
Notes and Answers 167
CHART 13-2: GO -ING
• Definitions of some vocabulary items in the chart:
bowling a game in which a heavy ball is rolled down a wooden alley at wooden pins
camping living outdoors in a tent or trailer
hiking walking a great distance through rural areas
sailing a voyage on water in a vessel with sails
window shopping looking at articles in store windows without making a purchase
sightseeing looking at the sights when visiting places of interest
ice skating gliding (moving or sliding smoothly) on ice, wearing special shoes with blades
on the bottom
skiing the sport of gliding on skis (NOTE: Double “i” is rare in English spelling. Indeed,
skiing may be the only word spelled with a double “i.”)
water-skiing gliding on water wearing water skis
skydiving jumping from an airplane and opening a parachute
• The illustrations below the chart show, starting in the upper left and going clockwise: hiking,
bowling, sailing, skiing, ice skating, and in the center, jogging/running. This might be a good
opportunity for you to teach your students “clockwise” and “counterclockwise.”
• A typical error in using this structure is the addition of to after go:
INCORRECT: Did you go to shopping?
CORRECT: Did you go shopping?
• The list in the chart presents only some of the more common expressions with go -ing. See
Understanding and Using English Grammar,Third Edition, Chart 14-5, for additional items.
□ EXERCISE 4, p. 372. GO -ING. (Chart 13-2)
The purpose here is to discuss the meaning of the go -ing expressions listed in Chart 13-2.
ANSWERS:
2. Nancy and Frank like to go fishing.
3. Adam went camping.
4. Tim likes to go shopping.
5. Laura goes jogging/running.
6. Fred and Jean like to go skiing.
7. Joe likes to go hiking.
8. Sara often goes bowling.
9. Liz and Greg probably go dancing a lot.
10. The Taylors are going to go (ice) skating.
11. Alex and Barbara like to go sailing/boating.
12. Tourists go sightseeing on buses.
13. Colette and Ben like to go skydiving.
14. (free response)
□ EXERCISE 5, p. 373. Verb infinitive. (Chart 13-3)
Some items have only one possible completion. For others, elicit a variety of completions in
class discussion.
EXPECTED ANSWERS: 2. to find / to rent 3. to be 4. to buy / to get 5. to
visit / to go to / to see 6. to go to / to visit / to live in 7. to do / to finish 8. to
get to / to arrive in 9. to watch 10. to be 11. to be 12. to be . . . to hear
13. to buy 14. to become / to be 15. to lend / to loan / to give 16. to eat
17. to go to . . . to attend 18. to pass 19. to get to / to be in 20. to see / to be
with 21. to hurt / to offend / to ignore / to interrupt / to embarrass 22. to swim / to
read / to answer the phone / to tell time
168 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-3: VERB INFINITIVE
• In this text, an infinitive is defined as a verb form that consists of to the simple form; “to-less
infinitives” such as those used following modal auxiliaries (must go) are simply called “the simple
form” in this text.
• To is simply a marker; it has no meaning in and of itself in an infinitive structure.
• The to in an infinitive is normally unstressed in speech. It is usually pronounced /tə/ instead of
/tu/.
• The text presents just a few of the common verbs followed by infinitives. See Understanding
and Using English Grammar,Third Edition, Chart 14-7, for a more complete reference list.
• Forget and try are listed in this text as being followed by infinitives, for that is how they are
most commonly used. They can, however, be followed by gerunds—with a change of meaning.
See Understanding and Using English Grammar,Third Edition, Chart 14-8. As mentioned in an
earlier chapter in this Teacher’s Guide, the text is planting acorns from which the tree will grow,
not presenting the whole tree—but that means teachers might get asked questions about
branches the text does not cover. Hence, these notes and references to a higher level textbook.
CHART 13-4: VERB GERUND OR INFINITIVE
• In using the main verbs listed in this chart, native speakers may have a preference for either a
gerund or an infinitive in certain instances, or there may be a difference in preferences in AmE
and BrE. However, the learners will be grammatically correct if they use either form following
the common verbs listed here.
There is usually no substantial difference in meaning between one form or the other
following these verbs, but there may be some subtle differences that learners at this stage would
have trouble discerning. (A common example used to illustrate this is I hate singing vs. I hate to
sing. I hate singing can mean the speaker hates it when other people sing or hates it when he
sings. I hate to sing means the speaker hates it when he sings. In other instances, however, there
is only a very small and very subtle difference between a gerund or an infinitive following hate:
I hate being late for appointments and I hate to be late for appointments. This is generally too much
information for students at this level.)
• This might be a good opportunity to discuss the difference between like and would like: Do you
like to dance? (Do you enjoy this?) vs.Would you like to dance? (an invitation)
• Can’t stand (meaning “hate”) may be new for your students. It is used principally in informal
spoken English. It isn’t quite as strong as the word hate, but is stronger than do not like.
□ EXERCISE 6, p. 375. Verb gerund or infinitive. (Chart 13-4)
This exercise seeks to make clear that either form is correct after certain verbs.
□ EXERCISE 7, p. 375. Verb gerund or infinitive. (Chart 13-4)
This practice encourages students to discuss their likes and dislikes. The class can work in
small groups. The goal is meaningful communication in direct conversation that employs
the target structures.
SAMPLE RESPONSES:
2. I don’t like to live/living in this city.
3. I can’t stand to wash/washing dishes.
4. I love to fly/flying.
5. I don’t mind waiting in airports.
6. I enjoy reading novels in my spare time.
7. I enjoy eating a delicious meal slowly.
8. I don’t mind speaking in front of a large group.
9. I enjoy playing cards for money.
10. I hate to drive/driving on city streets during rush hour.
11. I don’t like to go/going to parties where I don’t know a single person.
12. I like to listen/listening to the sounds of the city while I’m trying to get to sleep.
13. I love to visit/visiting with friends I haven’t seen in a long time.
14. I don’t like to get/getting in between two friends who are having an argument.
15. I enjoy travel(l)ing to strange and exotic places. [spelling: AmE prefers traveling; BrE prefers
travelling.]
□ EXERCISE 8, p. 375. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
Some students may want to try to memorize the lists in the charts, but the intention of the
text is to supply plenty of practice to help the students become comfortable and familiar
with common verbs followed by gerunds and infinitives.
ANSWERS:
4. to get 11. to be 18. to hire/hiring . . . coming
5. eating 12. moving 19. to say
6. to meet/meeting 13. to go/going 20. to go shopping
7. to help 14. to lock 21. to want to go sailing
8. to watch/watching 15. living 22. sleeping
9. cracking 16. to take 23. trying to grow
10. to feed 17. to give 24. being
□ EXERCISE 9, p. 377. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
Encourage the students to use a variety of place names by telling them they can say a place
name only one time.
Student A needs to monitor B’s responses for correct usage of gerunds and infinitives.
Student A can look in the charts, if necessary, to ascertain whether B’s response is correct,
or ask the teacher.
□ EXERCISE 10, p. 377. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
The purpose of this exercise is to illustrate parallel usage of gerunds and infinitives. Lack of
parallelism is a common problem; e.g., INCORRECT: I enjoy getting up early and watch the
sunrise. (NOTE: Without and, the sentence I enjoy getting up early (in order) to watch the
sunrise is also possible.)
Notes and Answers 169
ANSWERS:
2. to relax 13. going . . . having
3. to stay . . . relax 14. to be/being
4. to stay . . . relax . . . go 15. going
5. getting 16. to stop making
6. watching 17. quitting . . . going
7. getting . . . watching 18. to leave . . . return
8. getting . . . watching . . . listening 19. washing
9. selling . . . buying 20. to unplug . . . turn off . . . lock
10. to move . . . find . . . start 21. to understand
11. painting 22. to stop driving
12. to go . . . buy 23. to reach . . . to keep trying
□ EXERCISE 11, p. 379. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
ANSWERS:
1. plan to go 16. promise to come
2. consider going 17. finish studying
3. offer to lend 18. would mind helping
4. like to visit / like visiting 19. hope to go
5. enjoy reading 20. think about going
6. intend to get 21. quit trying
7. decide to get 22. expect to stay
8. seem to be 23. stop eating (OR: stop in order to eat)
9. put off writing 24. refuse to lend
10. forget to go 25. agree to lend
11. can’t afford to buy 26. postpone going
12. try to learn 27. begin to study / begin studying
13. need to learn 28. continue to walk / continue walking
14. would love to take 29. talk about going
15. would like to go swimming 30. keep trying to improve
□ EXERCISE 12, p. 379. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
This passage was written specifically to include a number of gerunds and infinitives, but it
nonetheless illustrates how useful and common these verbals are.
ANSWERS:
2. to drive 15. to visit/visiting 28. to find
3. to compromise 16. to do/doing 29. to go
4. to find 17. seeing 30. to hear
5. to go 18. to visit 31. to call
6. going 19. to go 32. skiing
7. fishing 20. camping 33. waterskiing
8. taking 21. camping/to camp 34. hiking
9. renting 22. to go 35. swimming
10. going 23. to spend/spending 36. exploring
11. sailing 24. to say 37. to climb
12. staying 25. to like 38. look
13. relaxing 26. thinking
14. doing 27. thinking
170 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
□ EXERCISE 13, p. 381. Preposition gerund. (Chart 13-5 and Appendix 2)
Students can look up the correct prepositions by referring to Appendix 2, Chart A2-2,
p. 463. More efficiently, the teacher can supply the correct prepositions when there is a
question.
ANSWERS:
2. for opening 8. about going 14. in being
3. about being 9. on paying 15. on meeting/to meet
4. in going 10. of/about being 16. for cleaning
5. for being 11. like eating 17. from entering
6. of flying 12. for not calling 18. at cutting
7. about taking 13. of living
□ EXERCISE 14, p. 382. Preposition gerund. (Chart 13-5 and Appendix 2)
Item 9 might cause confusion. Plan can be followed immediately by an infinitive, or by a
preposition and gerund: I’m planning to go to a movie tonight. OR I’m planning on going to
a movie tonight.
SAMPLE ANSWERS: 1. I’m interested in going swimming. 2. I’m worried about
failing my exams. 3. I thanked my friend for watering my plants. 4. I apologized
for interrupting the teacher. 5. I’m afraid of walking home alone at night.
6. I’m nervous about taking final exams. 7. I’m excited about going to the opera.
8. I feel like cutting class today. 9. I’m planning on visiting my relatives in Miami.
10. I’m tired of doing grammar exercises.
□ EXERCISE 15, p. 382. Preposition gerund. (Chart 13-5)
You could make up a quick oral exercise to help the students learn the preposition
combinations in this exercise: start a sentence and have the students call out the correct
preposition. For example:
TEACHER: I don’t like big dogs. I’m afraid . . .
CLASS: of
TEACHER: Right! . . . afraid of them.
ANSWERS:
3. of drowning 9. to taking 15. about/of quitting
4. about meeting 10. like telling 16. from doing
5. for helping 11. for lying 17. on eating
6. in going 12. on paying 18. for spilling
7. about visiting 13. for causing 19. of losing
8. about pleasing 14. at remembering
Notes and Answers 171
CHART 13-5: PREPOSITION GERUND
• A gerund, not an infinitive, immediately follows a preposition. (In the idiomatic expression
to be about to do something, about functions as an adjective, not a preposition. It means “just
ready.” See Chart 3-9.)
• The text does not introduce gerunds that have their own “subjects” that can occur between a
preposition and the gerund: Kate insisted on Jake( ’s) coming with us. (See Understanding and
Using English Grammar,Third Edition, Chart 15-6.)
□ EXERCISE 16, p. 384. Preposition gerund. (Chart 13-5)
Having students make up quizzes for each other is a good technique for reviewing grammar.
Students who teach other students learn a lot themselves.
This is the only example of this type of exercise in the text, but you can use this
technique in almost every chapter. One suggestion is to have students make up preposition
quizzes for each other based on the groups of phrasal verbs and preposition combinations in
the appendices.
SAMPLE ITEMS:
1. I thanked Mustafa _________ (open) __________________ the door.
2. I feel _________ (take) __________________ a trip.
3. Ana is worried _________ (not have) __________________ a valid passport.
4. Jack insisted _________ (drive) __________________ the car.
5. I don’t believe _________ (trust) __________________ other people with my money.
6. Sam is nervous _________ (speak) __________________ in front of the class.
7. I look forward _________ (do) __________________ my workout at the gym.
8. Nadia apologized to her roommate _________ (sell) __________________ her radio.
9. Please forgive me _________ (lie) __________________ to you.
10. Are you excited _________ (move) __________________ to Los Angeles?
172 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-6: USING BY AND WITHTO EXPRESS HOW SOMETHING IS DONE
• In general, by is used with means of transportation or communication, and with is used with
tools or parts of the body. (EXCEPTION: by hand)
□ EXERCISE 17, p. 385. BY gerund. (Chart 13-6)
Some of the vocabulary might require explanation and discussion.
POSSIBLE ANSWERS: 2. by washing 3. by watching 4. by smiling 5. by
eating 6. by drinking 7. by guessing 8. by waving 9. by wagging
10. by staying . . . taking 11. by cooking / by freezing 12. by frying . . . boiling . . .
poaching 13. by reading a lot / speaking only English / etc. 14. by recycling glass
(newspapers, aluminum, etc.) / by not wasting water (oil, electricity, etc.) / by turning off
the electricity when we leave a room / etc. 15. by asking knowledgeable questions
16. by exercising 17. by reading aloud to them from a very young age
18. by conserving the earth’s resources / by working for peace / etc.
□ EXERCISE 18, p. 386. Using WITH. (Chart 13-6)
ANSWERS:
2. with a needle and thread
3. with a saw
4. with a thermometer
5. with a spoon
6. with a shovel
7. with a hammer
8. with a pair of scissors
□ EXERCISE 19, p. 386. Using BY or WITH. (Chart 13-6)
ANSWERS:
3. with 7. by 11. with
4. by 8. with 12. by
5. with 9. by 13. with
6. with 10. by 14. by
Notes and Answers 173
CHART 13-7: USING GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS; USING IT INFINITIVE
• Point out that a gerund phrase as subject is singular and takes a singular verb, even if the
gerund is followed by a plural noun: Reading books is fun. In this sentence, reading, not books,
determines the verb.
• Confusion may arise in cases where the -ing word is used as an adjective to modify a noun:
Reading books (i.e., books that teach reading skills) are usually collections of essays and stories.
(Some grammars analyze this use of reading as a gerund used as a noun adjunct; others view it as
a present participle used as an adjective.)
Other examples:
Washing (gerund) dishes isn’t much fun. vs. Washing (adjectival) machines are expensive.
Helping (gerund) other people is important. vs. Helping (adjectival) verbs are also called
auxiliary verbs.
The text does not address these grammar points, but questions may arise.
• Keep the students’ focus on the two patterns presented in examples (a) and (b). Infinitives
can, of course, be used as the subject of a sentence: To ride horses is fun. The text chooses to
emphasize the more common pattern that uses a gerund as the subject. It is also possible for a
gerund to follow it: It is fun riding horses. Again the text chooses to emphasize the more common
pattern of it infinitive.
□ EXERCISE 20, p. 387. Gerunds as subjects. (Chart 13-7)
ANSWERS:
2. Making friends isn’t hard. 6. Cheating during a test is wrong.
3. Cooking rice is easy. 7. Is living in an apartment expensive?
4. Taking a long walk is relaxing. 8. Living in a foreign country isn’t easy.
5. Is learning a second language difficult? 9. Making new friends takes time.
□ EXERCISE 21, p. 387. IT infinitive. (Chart 13-7)
ANSWERS:
2. It’s fun to play tennis. 3. It’s important to be polite to other people. 4. It’s
interesting to learn about other cultures. 5. It’s dangerous to walk alone at night 6. Is it
easy to ride a motorcycle? 7. It isn’t much fun to have a cold. 8. It takes a long time to
learn a second language. 9. It takes three minutes to cook
□ EXERCISE 22, p. 387. Gerunds as subjects; IT infinitive. (Chart 13-7)
Responding students may need to leave their books open for this exercise.
SAMPLE ANSWER:
1. B: It’s more fun to go to a movie than (to) study at the library.
A: I agree. Going to a movie is more fun than studying at the library.
174 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-8: IT INFINITIVE: USING FOR (SOMEONE)
• This chart expands the it infinitive pattern by adding for (someone). This is a frequent and
productive sentence type, especially in spoken English.
□ EXERCISE 23, p. 388. Using FOR (SOMEONE). (Chart 13-8)
ANSWERS:
2. for teachers to speak clearly
3. for us to hurry
4. for a fish to live out of water
5. for students to budget their time carefully
6. for a child to sit still for a long time
7. for my family to eat turkey on Thanksgiving Day [Thanksgiving occurs on the fourth
Thursday in November in the U.S. and on the second Monday of October in Canada.]
8. for people to take trips to the moon
9. for me to understand Mr. Alvarez
10. for guests to wait until the hostess begins to eat
11. for the bride to feed the groom the first piece of wedding cake
12. for me to understand our teacher
□ EXERCISE 24, p. 390. Gerunds as subjects; IT infinitive. (Charts 13-7 and 13-8)
ANSWERS:
2. Reading newspapers is important/fun/educational/relaxing. OR
It is important/fun/educational/relaxing to read newspapers.
3. Studying grammar is easy/hard/important. OR
It is easy/hard/important to study grammar.
4. Playing tennis is easy/hard/exciting/fun/relaxing. OR
It is easy/hard/exciting/fun/relaxing to play tennis.
5. Stealing cars is against the law/dangerous. OR
It is against the law/dangerous to steal cars.
6. Listening to a two-hour speech is boring/hard/impossible/a waste of time. OR
It is boring/hard/impossible/a waste of time to listen to a two-hour speech.
7. Predicting the exact time of an earthquake is impossible. OR
It is impossible to predict the exact time of an earthquake.
8. Forgetting someone’s name is embarrassing. OR
It is embarrassing to forget someone’s name.
9. Walking alone through a dark forest at night is dangerous/frightening. OR
It is dangerous/frightening to walk alone through a dark forest at night.
10. Going fishing with your friends is fun/relaxing. OR
It is fun/relaxing to go fishing with your friends.
11. Knowing the meaning of every word in a dictionary is impossible. OR
It is impossible to know the meaning of every word in a dictionary.
12. Being honest with yourself at all times is hard/important. OR
It is hard/important to be honest with yourself at all times.
13. Changing a flat tire is easy/hard. OR
It is easy/hard to change a flat tire.
14. Visiting museums is boring/educational/exciting/fun/relaxing. OR
It is boring/educational/exciting/fun/relaxing to visit museums.
15. Logging on to the Internet is easy/fun/exciting/educational/relaxing. OR
It is boring/a waste of time to log on to the Internet.
□ EXERCISE 25, p. 390. IT FOR (SOMEONE) infinitive. (Charts 13-7 and 13-8)
One of the main points of this exercise is to show how the for (someone) phrase qualifies
generalizations, i.e., limits them.
SAMPLE RESPONSES: 2. It’s easy for children to learn how to swim. It’s easy for some
people to change a flat tire. 3. It’s fun for most people to visit new places. It’s fun for
most people to learn how to swim. It’s fun for most people to spend time with friends.
4. It’s important for students to be on time for class. It’s important for children to obey
their parents. It is important for anyone to spend time with friends. 5. It’s impossible
for anyone to live on the planet Mars. It’s impossible for some people to learn how to swim.
It is impossible for some people to change a flat tire. It’s impossible for anyone to predict
the exact time of an earthquake. 6. It’s enjoyable for anyone to spend time with friends.
It’s enjoyable for most people to visit new places. It’s enjoyable for children to learn how to
swim. 7. It’s interesting for most people to observe animals in their wild habitat. It’s
interesting for most people to visit new places. 8. It’s possible for most people to
change a flat tire. It’s possible for most people to learn how to swim.
□ EXERCISE 26, p. 391. IT FOR (SOMEONE) infinitive. (Charts 13-7 and 13-8)
SAMPLE RESPONSES:
1. It is easy for David to build a chair.
2. It’s traditional for the man to ask the woman to marry him.
3. It’s impossible for me to read your mind. [to read your mind to guess your thoughts]
4. It takes an hour for Guido to deliver the morning newspapers.
5. It’s sensible for people to exercise each day.
6. Is it necessary for you to play the stereo so loudly?
7. It’s important for children to go to bed early.
8. It’s difficult for me to call you during the day.
□ EXERCISE 27, p. 391. IT TAKE infinitive. (Charts 5-13 and 13-8)
The pattern with it take infinitive is introduced in Chapter 5 in connection with
questions with how long. The pattern is reviewed and expanded upon here to include take
time (or an expression of time, e.g., days, years, months), money, patience, courage, skill, hard
work, stamina, and determination (for someone) infinitive phrase. In other words, this
exercise presents information not covered in a chart by teaching vocabulary used in the
pattern with it take. You might want to make special note for your students of the
common words used in this pattern.
SAMPLE RESPONSES:
1. It takes time for young adults to decide what career to follow.
2. It takes a lot of money to build a house.
3. It takes three minutes to poach an egg.
4. How long does it take to cross the English Channel?
5. It will take many years for nations to learn to live together in peace.
6. It takes patience to learn to knit. It takes courage to live by your principles. It takes
skill to ride a horse.
7. It takes hard work for construction workers to erect a building.
8. It takes stamina and determination to compete in the Olympic Games.
Notes and Answers 175
□ EXERCISE 28, p. 392. Using IN ORDER TO. (Chart 13-9)
ANSWERS:
3. . . . hospital in order to visit
4. (no change)
5. . . . today in order to deposit
6. . . . drugstore in order to buy
7. . . . dictionary in order to find
8. . . . cafeteria in order to eat
9. (no change)
□ EXERCISE 29, p. 392. Using (IN ORDER) TO. (Chart 13-9)
ANSWERS:
2. C (in order) to listen 5. I (in order) to see 8. F (in order) to chase
3. D (in order) to find 6. B (in order) to reach 9. H (in order) to get
4. A (in order) to keep 7. J (in order) to look 10. G (in order) to help
□ EXERCISE 30, p. 393. Expressing purpose with TO and FOR. (Chart 13-9)
ANSWERS:
3. to 7. to 10. for 13. for
4. for 8. for 11. to 14. for
5. for 9. to 12. to 15. to
6. to
□ EXERCISE 31, p. 393. Expressing purpose with TO and FOR. (Chart 13-9)
Whichever pattern students use is fine: infinitives or for-phrases.
SAMPLE ANSWERS: 1. I went to the supermarket for some bread / to get some bread.
2. I need to go to the bookstore for some notebook paper / to get some notebook paper.
3. I went to the post office for some stamps / to get some stamps. 4. I went to the
health clinic for an appointment with a dermatologist / to see a dermatologist. 5. I
reached into my pocket/purse for some change / to get some change for the candy machine.
6. I came to this school to study English / for the Intensive English Program.
176 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-9: EXPRESSING PURPOSE WITH IN ORDER TO AND FOR
• Common mistakes are:
INCORRECT: She came here for studying English.
INCORRECT: She came here for to study English.
INCORRECT: She came here for study English.
• There is an exception in which for is followed by a gerund to express purpose. The phrase be
used for expresses the typical or general purpose of a thing. In this case, the preposition for is
followed by a gerund: A saw is used for cutting wood. Also possible: A saw is used (in order) to cut
wood.
• This might be a good place to review the information in the footnote on p. 370 regarding
stop gerund compared to stop infinitive of purpose.
COMPARE: I stopped reading and took a walk.
I was reading, but around three o’clock I stopped (in order) to take a walk.
10. . . .TV in order to improve
11. (no change)
12. . . . university in order to ask
13. . . . shoulder in order to get
14. (no change)
15. . . . bookstore in order to buy
7. I borrowed some money from ( . . . ) for gas [BrE: petrol] for my car / to buy gas for my
car. 8. I stopped at the service station for gas / to get gas. 9. I play tennis for
exercise / to get exercise. 10. I had to go out last night for a meeting / to go to a
meeting.
Notes and Answers 177
CHART 13-10: USING INFINITIVES WITH TOO AND ENOUGH
• Review the meanings and spellings of to, too, and two, all of which have the same pronunciation.
to a preposition or part of an infinitive.
too (1) an adverb meaning “also” that comes at the end of a sentence; or
(2) as in this chart, a modifier that means “excessive.”
two the number 2.
• Note that too is not used before adjectives immediately followed by nouns:
CORRECT: We didn’t go swimming because the water was too cold.
INCORRECT: We didn’t go swimming because of the too cold water.
There is another possible but infrequent pattern with too and a singular count noun:
too adjective a noun.
Example: It was too hot a day for hard work in the sun.
• A common problem results from learners attempting to use too as an intensifier meaning “very,
very.”
INCORRECT: We all enjoyed the scenery a lot. It was too beautiful!
Explain that the use of too implies a negative result (i.e., something can’t happen, as in This ring
is too expensive. I can’t buy it.) and does not mean “very, very.” (In a negative sentence, of
course, the opposite is true and too implies a positive result: The ring wasn’t too expensive. I could
buy it.)
• Enough means “sufficient or sufficiently.” It conveys the presence of the necessary extent,
amount, or degree of something to produce a certain result. The result is expressed in the
infinitive phrase: I’m tall enough to touch the ceiling. My being able to touch the ceiling is the result
of the fact that I have the necessary height.
Explaining the meaning of enough by using synonyms or definitions is not easy. Usually
students can understand its meaning simply from the examples in the charts and exercises.
• Perhaps you can think of a way to illustrate too and enough in the classroom. One idea would
be to pick a high spot in the room, maybe the top of a window. Who is tall enough to touch it?
Who isn’t tall enough? Who is too short? Is anyone too short to touch the top of the window?
□ EXERCISE 32, p. 394. TOO and ENOUGH infinitive. (Chart 13-10)
Note the instructions to use too in items 1–6 and enough in 7–10.
PART I. ANSWERS: 2. I was too sleepy to finish my homework last night.
3. This jacket is too small for me to wear. 4. Mike was too busy to go to his aunt’s
housewarming party. 5. I live too far from school to walk there. 6. Some movies
are too violent for children to watch.
PART II. ANSWERS: 8. I’m not strong enough to lift a horse. 9. It’s not warm
enough today for us to go outside in shorts and sandals. 10. I wasn’t sick enough to
stay home and miss work, but I didn’t feel good all day.
□ EXERCISE 33, p. 394. TOO and ENOUGH infinitive. (Chart 13-10)
ANSWERS:
3. too busy to answer 6. large enough to hold
4. early enough to get 7. too big to get
5. too full to hold 8. big enough to hold
□ EXERCISE 34, p. 395. TOO and ENOUGH infinitive. (Chart 13-10)
ANSWERS:
3. Ø . . . enough 7. Ø . . . enough
4. too . . . Ø 8. Ø . . . enough
5. too . . . Ø 9. too . . . Ø
6. too . . . Ø
□ EXERCISE 35, p. 396. TOO and ENOUGH infinitive. (Chart 13-10)
POSSIBLE COMPLETIONS:
1. . . . to touch the ceiling.
2. . . . to touch the ceiling.
3. . . . to lift a horse.
4. . . . to do my homework.
5. . . . to call my mother.
6. . . . for me to buy.
7. . . . to buy a Mercedes.
8. . . . to finish my homework.
9. . . . to stay home alone . . . to have his or her own apartment.
10. . . . to have conversations about the weather . . . to understand everything I hear
□ EXERCISE 36, p. 396. Review: gerunds vs. infinitives. (Chapter 13)
ANSWERS:
3. (in order) to look 15. to get . . . sleep
4. to go/going swimming 16. staring . . . thinking . . . to be
5. (in order) to invite 17. to work . . . going/to go . . . looking . . . doing
6. going 18. Asking . . . getting . . . to make . . . keep . . .
7. listening to be
8. drawing 19. forgetting to call
9. to understand . . . to improve 20. to travel/traveling . . . to go/going
. . . to be . . . Lecturing 21. (in order) to make
10. to feed 22. taking
11. to feed . . . getting 23. cracking . . . to be
12. feeding 24. to shake . . . looking (also possible: to look)
13. (in order) to earn . . . to take 25. to stand/standing . . . to move/moving
14. to take 26. Smiling
□ EXERCISE 37, p. 398. Error analysis. (Chapter 13)
As in other error-analysis exercises, almost all the entries are adapted from actual student
writing. Students might like to know that students before them made the same errors they
make but have gone on to successful second-language acquisition. Making errors is just
part of the process—you could compare it to learning a musical instrument. No one can sit
down and play perfectly from the beginning or just from studying a manual. It takes
practice, practice, practice (mistakes and all)—as does language learning.
178 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
ANSWERS: 2. I went to the store to get some toothpaste. 3. Did you go to
shopping yesterday? 4. I usually go to the cafeteria for to get a cup of coffee in the
morning. (OR: . . . to the cafeteria for to get a cup of coffee) 5. Bob needed to go
downtown yesterday. 6. I cut the rope with a knife. 7. I thanked him for driving
me to the airport. 8. It is difficult to learn a second language. 9. It is important to
get an education. 10. Timmy isn’t old enough to get married. 11. Do you want to
go to swimming tomorrow? 12. I went to the bank to cash a check. 13. I was too
sleepy to finish my homework last night. 14. It is easy to do this exercise. / This
exercise is easy to do. 15. Last night I was too tired to do my homework. 16. I’ve
never gone to sailing, but I would like to. 17. Reading it is one of my hobbies.
18. The man began to build a wall around his garden. 19. . . . you learn a lot about
other countries and cultures. 20. Instead of settling down in one place 21. My
grandmother likes to fish / likes to fishing / likes to go fishing. 22. Mary would like to
have a big family.
□ EXERCISE 38, p. 399. Speaking. (Chapter 13)
Brainstorm ideas for topics before dividing the class into groups. In organizing the groups,
make one student the time-keeper.
□ EXERCISE 39, p. 399. Writing. (Chapter 13)
As a preliminary to the assignment, ask students what activities they enjoy and discuss what
they could write about them. Help the students get started on this assignment by showing a
lot of interest in their activities and asking a lot of questions about them.
□ EXERCISE 40, p. 400. Review: verb forms. (Chapters 1 → 13)
This practice contains almost all of the verb forms introduced from the beginning of the
text through this chapter.
ANSWERS:
2. went 26. turned
3. is 27. to go
4. manufactures 28. was closed/had closed
5. are made 29. was locked
6. has 30. didn’t have
7. needs 31. wasn’t dressed
8. to meet 32. was wearing
9. travels 33. am I going to do / will I do /
10. went should I do / can I do
11. (in order) to meet 34. standing
12. speaks 35. decided
13. knows 36. to get
14. doesn’t know 37. started
15. was staying 38. walking/to walk
16. had 39. knocking
17. was staying 40. (in order) to ask
18. was getting 41. to ask
19. heard 42. reached
20. walked 43. pushed
21. opened 44. waited
22. found 45. came
23. took 46. took
24. looked 47. got
25. saw 48. were surprised
Notes and Answers 179
49. saw 60. walked
50. was wrapped 61. looked
51. thought 62. didn’t have to understand
52. trying 63. (in order) to figure
53. to explain 64. didn’t have to say
54. didn’t know 65. grabbed
55. nodded 66. took
56. didn’t smile / wasn’t smiling 67. led
57. looked 68. is still embarrassed
58. smiled 69. laughs
59. reached 70. tells
□ EXERCISE 41, p. 402. Review of verb forms: writing. (Chapters 1 → 13)
Students can model their composition on the passage in Exercise 40. Discuss embarrassing
experiences with your class to help them get started on this assignment. Think of an
embarrassing experience you have had and share that. You could also volunteer to write a
composition yourself and bring it to class to share with the students. Students often like the
idea that the teacher is doing the same writing assignment. It also helps the teacher
understand writing assignments from the students’ perspective and how s/he can best help
students produce good compositions.
180 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
Chapter 13: GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES
ORDER OF CHAPTER CHARTS EXERCISES WORKBOOK
Verbs gerunds and infinitives 13-1 → 13-4 Ex. 1 → 12 Pr. 1 → 7
Preposition gerund 13-5 Ex. 13 → 16 Pr. 8 → 9
Summary review Pr. 10 → 12
By vs. with 13-6 Ex. 17 → 19 Pr. 13 → 15
Using gerunds as subjects;
using it infinitive 13-7 → 13-8 Ex. 20 → 27 Pr. 16 → 17
In order to and for 13-9 Ex. 28 → 31 Pr. 18 → 20
Too and enough infinitive 13-10 Ex. 32 → 35 Pr. 21 → 22
Cumulative review Ex. 36 → 39 Pr. 23 → 25
Review of verb forms Ex. 40 → 41
General Notes on Chapter 13
• To this point in the text, the learners have focused on the forms of verbs used as the main
verb of a sentence or clause. In this chapter, students will learn other forms and uses of
verbs: gerunds and infinitives. The ability to use these verbals and their associated verbs is
indispensable; they are exceedingly common and very useful for students in expressing their
wants, needs, likes, dislikes, hopes, plans, attitudes, and activities.
• TERMINOLOGY: A gerund is sometimes called a “verbal noun.” Calling it merely “the
-ing form of a verb” invites confusion with the present participle, which has different
grammatical functions.
In this text, an infinitive is defined as to the simple form of a verb. The text does not
use the terms “to-less infinitive” or “base infinitive” or “the infinitive form without to” to
describe the verb form that follows, for example, modal auxiliaries (as in must go) or let’s (as
in let’s go). Rather, the text simply calls those the simple form of a verb. For students’
purposes, the simple form of the verb is defined as the form found in a dictionary listing
(Chart 2-6, p. 32).
□ EXERCISE 1, p. 369. Verb gerund. (Chart 13-1)
This exercise can be done without the students preparing it. Just ask them to call out
possible completions. Its intention is to get across the idea that one verb can immediately
follow another verb: i.e., that an -ing verb (a gerund) can follow a main verb.
You might also note for the students that gerunds, as verb forms, can be followed by
objects. In We postponed visiting the zoo, zoo is the object of the gerund visiting.
EXPECTED RESPONSES: 3. going to / driving to / flying to 4. washing / sweeping /
vacuuming / mopping / cleaning 5. doing / finishing / studying 6. snowing
7. reading / buying 8. taking / signing up for / registering for 9. looking for /
changing to 10. watching / playing / taking part in / reading about 11. visiting /
moving to / moving out of / traveling to 12. talking 13. working / painting / playing
14. closing / shutting / opening 15. attending / going to
□ EXERCISE 2, p. 370. Verb gerund. (Chart 13-1)
You might ask the students to do both: complete the dialogues by choosing from the given
phrases and also by using their own words.
ANSWERS: 2. buying a new car . . . getting a Toyota 3. reading a good book
4. smoking 5. trying 6. doing things . . . doing my homework 7. helping him
8. tapping your fingernails on the table 9. going to the zoo on Saturday
10. repeating that
166 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-1: VERB GERUND
• The verb gerund phrase is a source of errors for many students. Although relatively few verbs
are followed by gerunds, those phrases occur with some frequency in both spoken and written
English. It is easy for learners to confuse verb gerund phrases with verb infinitive phrases. For
example: I want to watch TV. I enjoy watching TV. Learners commonly mix these elements
and make errors such as the following:
INCORRECT: I enjoy to watch TV.
• The text presents a few common verbs and verb phrases followed by gerunds that students
might find useful. As their vocabularies grow, they will encounter other verbs followed by
gerunds, such as risk, resist, deny, delay. (See Understanding and Using English Grammar,Third
Edition, Chart 14-9, for a longer list of verbs followed by gerunds.) Here, however, the focus is
on only a few phrases as a starting point.
• You might want to note for the class that not all -ing verbs are gerunds; some are present participles.
I enjoy working gerund, used as a noun, in this case as the object of the verb.
(I subject; enjoy verb; working object)
I am working present participle.
(I subject; am working verb)
• Notes on the verbs listed in this chapter:
• stop can also be followed by an infinitive of purpose (see footnote p. 370 in the text):
Jane was walking home. When she saw a coin on the sidewalk, she stopped (in order) to
pick it up.
• keep and keep on have the same meaning when followed by a gerund.
• consider is followed by a gerund when it means “think about,” as in the example in the
text; it is followed by a (pro)noun object infinitive when it means “believe” (We consider
him to be our closest friend).
□ EXERCISE 3, p. 371. Verb gerund. (Chart 13-1)
Students can prepare their completions as homework or in groups or pairs. Elicit two or
three completions in class discussion: e.g., I enjoy buying clothes. I enjoy doing homework. I
enjoy eating chocolate. I enjoy exercising at the gym. Etc.
Notes and Answers 167
CHART 13-2: GO -ING
• Definitions of some vocabulary items in the chart:
bowling a game in which a heavy ball is rolled down a wooden alley at wooden pins
camping living outdoors in a tent or trailer
hiking walking a great distance through rural areas
sailing a voyage on water in a vessel with sails
window shopping looking at articles in store windows without making a purchase
sightseeing looking at the sights when visiting places of interest
ice skating gliding (moving or sliding smoothly) on ice, wearing special shoes with blades
on the bottom
skiing the sport of gliding on skis (NOTE: Double “i” is rare in English spelling. Indeed,
skiing may be the only word spelled with a double “i.”)
water-skiing gliding on water wearing water skis
skydiving jumping from an airplane and opening a parachute
• The illustrations below the chart show, starting in the upper left and going clockwise: hiking,
bowling, sailing, skiing, ice skating, and in the center, jogging/running. This might be a good
opportunity for you to teach your students “clockwise” and “counterclockwise.”
• A typical error in using this structure is the addition of to after go:
INCORRECT: Did you go to shopping?
CORRECT: Did you go shopping?
• The list in the chart presents only some of the more common expressions with go -ing. See
Understanding and Using English Grammar,Third Edition, Chart 14-5, for additional items.
□ EXERCISE 4, p. 372. GO -ING. (Chart 13-2)
The purpose here is to discuss the meaning of the go -ing expressions listed in Chart 13-2.
ANSWERS:
2. Nancy and Frank like to go fishing.
3. Adam went camping.
4. Tim likes to go shopping.
5. Laura goes jogging/running.
6. Fred and Jean like to go skiing.
7. Joe likes to go hiking.
8. Sara often goes bowling.
9. Liz and Greg probably go dancing a lot.
10. The Taylors are going to go (ice) skating.
11. Alex and Barbara like to go sailing/boating.
12. Tourists go sightseeing on buses.
13. Colette and Ben like to go skydiving.
14. (free response)
□ EXERCISE 5, p. 373. Verb infinitive. (Chart 13-3)
Some items have only one possible completion. For others, elicit a variety of completions in
class discussion.
EXPECTED ANSWERS: 2. to find / to rent 3. to be 4. to buy / to get 5. to
visit / to go to / to see 6. to go to / to visit / to live in 7. to do / to finish 8. to
get to / to arrive in 9. to watch 10. to be 11. to be 12. to be . . . to hear
13. to buy 14. to become / to be 15. to lend / to loan / to give 16. to eat
17. to go to . . . to attend 18. to pass 19. to get to / to be in 20. to see / to be
with 21. to hurt / to offend / to ignore / to interrupt / to embarrass 22. to swim / to
read / to answer the phone / to tell time
168 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-3: VERB INFINITIVE
• In this text, an infinitive is defined as a verb form that consists of to the simple form; “to-less
infinitives” such as those used following modal auxiliaries (must go) are simply called “the simple
form” in this text.
• To is simply a marker; it has no meaning in and of itself in an infinitive structure.
• The to in an infinitive is normally unstressed in speech. It is usually pronounced /tə/ instead of
/tu/.
• The text presents just a few of the common verbs followed by infinitives. See Understanding
and Using English Grammar,Third Edition, Chart 14-7, for a more complete reference list.
• Forget and try are listed in this text as being followed by infinitives, for that is how they are
most commonly used. They can, however, be followed by gerunds—with a change of meaning.
See Understanding and Using English Grammar,Third Edition, Chart 14-8. As mentioned in an
earlier chapter in this Teacher’s Guide, the text is planting acorns from which the tree will grow,
not presenting the whole tree—but that means teachers might get asked questions about
branches the text does not cover. Hence, these notes and references to a higher level textbook.
CHART 13-4: VERB GERUND OR INFINITIVE
• In using the main verbs listed in this chart, native speakers may have a preference for either a
gerund or an infinitive in certain instances, or there may be a difference in preferences in AmE
and BrE. However, the learners will be grammatically correct if they use either form following
the common verbs listed here.
There is usually no substantial difference in meaning between one form or the other
following these verbs, but there may be some subtle differences that learners at this stage would
have trouble discerning. (A common example used to illustrate this is I hate singing vs. I hate to
sing. I hate singing can mean the speaker hates it when other people sing or hates it when he
sings. I hate to sing means the speaker hates it when he sings. In other instances, however, there
is only a very small and very subtle difference between a gerund or an infinitive following hate:
I hate being late for appointments and I hate to be late for appointments. This is generally too much
information for students at this level.)
• This might be a good opportunity to discuss the difference between like and would like: Do you
like to dance? (Do you enjoy this?) vs.Would you like to dance? (an invitation)
• Can’t stand (meaning “hate”) may be new for your students. It is used principally in informal
spoken English. It isn’t quite as strong as the word hate, but is stronger than do not like.
□ EXERCISE 6, p. 375. Verb gerund or infinitive. (Chart 13-4)
This exercise seeks to make clear that either form is correct after certain verbs.
□ EXERCISE 7, p. 375. Verb gerund or infinitive. (Chart 13-4)
This practice encourages students to discuss their likes and dislikes. The class can work in
small groups. The goal is meaningful communication in direct conversation that employs
the target structures.
SAMPLE RESPONSES:
2. I don’t like to live/living in this city.
3. I can’t stand to wash/washing dishes.
4. I love to fly/flying.
5. I don’t mind waiting in airports.
6. I enjoy reading novels in my spare time.
7. I enjoy eating a delicious meal slowly.
8. I don’t mind speaking in front of a large group.
9. I enjoy playing cards for money.
10. I hate to drive/driving on city streets during rush hour.
11. I don’t like to go/going to parties where I don’t know a single person.
12. I like to listen/listening to the sounds of the city while I’m trying to get to sleep.
13. I love to visit/visiting with friends I haven’t seen in a long time.
14. I don’t like to get/getting in between two friends who are having an argument.
15. I enjoy travel(l)ing to strange and exotic places. [spelling: AmE prefers traveling; BrE prefers
travelling.]
□ EXERCISE 8, p. 375. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
Some students may want to try to memorize the lists in the charts, but the intention of the
text is to supply plenty of practice to help the students become comfortable and familiar
with common verbs followed by gerunds and infinitives.
ANSWERS:
4. to get 11. to be 18. to hire/hiring . . . coming
5. eating 12. moving 19. to say
6. to meet/meeting 13. to go/going 20. to go shopping
7. to help 14. to lock 21. to want to go sailing
8. to watch/watching 15. living 22. sleeping
9. cracking 16. to take 23. trying to grow
10. to feed 17. to give 24. being
□ EXERCISE 9, p. 377. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
Encourage the students to use a variety of place names by telling them they can say a place
name only one time.
Student A needs to monitor B’s responses for correct usage of gerunds and infinitives.
Student A can look in the charts, if necessary, to ascertain whether B’s response is correct,
or ask the teacher.
□ EXERCISE 10, p. 377. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
The purpose of this exercise is to illustrate parallel usage of gerunds and infinitives. Lack of
parallelism is a common problem; e.g., INCORRECT: I enjoy getting up early and watch the
sunrise. (NOTE: Without and, the sentence I enjoy getting up early (in order) to watch the
sunrise is also possible.)
Notes and Answers 169
ANSWERS:
2. to relax 13. going . . . having
3. to stay . . . relax 14. to be/being
4. to stay . . . relax . . . go 15. going
5. getting 16. to stop making
6. watching 17. quitting . . . going
7. getting . . . watching 18. to leave . . . return
8. getting . . . watching . . . listening 19. washing
9. selling . . . buying 20. to unplug . . . turn off . . . lock
10. to move . . . find . . . start 21. to understand
11. painting 22. to stop driving
12. to go . . . buy 23. to reach . . . to keep trying
□ EXERCISE 11, p. 379. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
ANSWERS:
1. plan to go 16. promise to come
2. consider going 17. finish studying
3. offer to lend 18. would mind helping
4. like to visit / like visiting 19. hope to go
5. enjoy reading 20. think about going
6. intend to get 21. quit trying
7. decide to get 22. expect to stay
8. seem to be 23. stop eating (OR: stop in order to eat)
9. put off writing 24. refuse to lend
10. forget to go 25. agree to lend
11. can’t afford to buy 26. postpone going
12. try to learn 27. begin to study / begin studying
13. need to learn 28. continue to walk / continue walking
14. would love to take 29. talk about going
15. would like to go swimming 30. keep trying to improve
□ EXERCISE 12, p. 379. Gerunds vs. infinitives. (Charts 13-1 → 13-4)
This passage was written specifically to include a number of gerunds and infinitives, but it
nonetheless illustrates how useful and common these verbals are.
ANSWERS:
2. to drive 15. to visit/visiting 28. to find
3. to compromise 16. to do/doing 29. to go
4. to find 17. seeing 30. to hear
5. to go 18. to visit 31. to call
6. going 19. to go 32. skiing
7. fishing 20. camping 33. waterskiing
8. taking 21. camping/to camp 34. hiking
9. renting 22. to go 35. swimming
10. going 23. to spend/spending 36. exploring
11. sailing 24. to say 37. to climb
12. staying 25. to like 38. look
13. relaxing 26. thinking
14. doing 27. thinking
170 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
□ EXERCISE 13, p. 381. Preposition gerund. (Chart 13-5 and Appendix 2)
Students can look up the correct prepositions by referring to Appendix 2, Chart A2-2,
p. 463. More efficiently, the teacher can supply the correct prepositions when there is a
question.
ANSWERS:
2. for opening 8. about going 14. in being
3. about being 9. on paying 15. on meeting/to meet
4. in going 10. of/about being 16. for cleaning
5. for being 11. like eating 17. from entering
6. of flying 12. for not calling 18. at cutting
7. about taking 13. of living
□ EXERCISE 14, p. 382. Preposition gerund. (Chart 13-5 and Appendix 2)
Item 9 might cause confusion. Plan can be followed immediately by an infinitive, or by a
preposition and gerund: I’m planning to go to a movie tonight. OR I’m planning on going to
a movie tonight.
SAMPLE ANSWERS: 1. I’m interested in going swimming. 2. I’m worried about
failing my exams. 3. I thanked my friend for watering my plants. 4. I apologized
for interrupting the teacher. 5. I’m afraid of walking home alone at night.
6. I’m nervous about taking final exams. 7. I’m excited about going to the opera.
8. I feel like cutting class today. 9. I’m planning on visiting my relatives in Miami.
10. I’m tired of doing grammar exercises.
□ EXERCISE 15, p. 382. Preposition gerund. (Chart 13-5)
You could make up a quick oral exercise to help the students learn the preposition
combinations in this exercise: start a sentence and have the students call out the correct
preposition. For example:
TEACHER: I don’t like big dogs. I’m afraid . . .
CLASS: of
TEACHER: Right! . . . afraid of them.
ANSWERS:
3. of drowning 9. to taking 15. about/of quitting
4. about meeting 10. like telling 16. from doing
5. for helping 11. for lying 17. on eating
6. in going 12. on paying 18. for spilling
7. about visiting 13. for causing 19. of losing
8. about pleasing 14. at remembering
Notes and Answers 171
CHART 13-5: PREPOSITION GERUND
• A gerund, not an infinitive, immediately follows a preposition. (In the idiomatic expression
to be about to do something, about functions as an adjective, not a preposition. It means “just
ready.” See Chart 3-9.)
• The text does not introduce gerunds that have their own “subjects” that can occur between a
preposition and the gerund: Kate insisted on Jake( ’s) coming with us. (See Understanding and
Using English Grammar,Third Edition, Chart 15-6.)
□ EXERCISE 16, p. 384. Preposition gerund. (Chart 13-5)
Having students make up quizzes for each other is a good technique for reviewing grammar.
Students who teach other students learn a lot themselves.
This is the only example of this type of exercise in the text, but you can use this
technique in almost every chapter. One suggestion is to have students make up preposition
quizzes for each other based on the groups of phrasal verbs and preposition combinations in
the appendices.
SAMPLE ITEMS:
1. I thanked Mustafa _________ (open) __________________ the door.
2. I feel _________ (take) __________________ a trip.
3. Ana is worried _________ (not have) __________________ a valid passport.
4. Jack insisted _________ (drive) __________________ the car.
5. I don’t believe _________ (trust) __________________ other people with my money.
6. Sam is nervous _________ (speak) __________________ in front of the class.
7. I look forward _________ (do) __________________ my workout at the gym.
8. Nadia apologized to her roommate _________ (sell) __________________ her radio.
9. Please forgive me _________ (lie) __________________ to you.
10. Are you excited _________ (move) __________________ to Los Angeles?
172 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-6: USING BY AND WITHTO EXPRESS HOW SOMETHING IS DONE
• In general, by is used with means of transportation or communication, and with is used with
tools or parts of the body. (EXCEPTION: by hand)
□ EXERCISE 17, p. 385. BY gerund. (Chart 13-6)
Some of the vocabulary might require explanation and discussion.
POSSIBLE ANSWERS: 2. by washing 3. by watching 4. by smiling 5. by
eating 6. by drinking 7. by guessing 8. by waving 9. by wagging
10. by staying . . . taking 11. by cooking / by freezing 12. by frying . . . boiling . . .
poaching 13. by reading a lot / speaking only English / etc. 14. by recycling glass
(newspapers, aluminum, etc.) / by not wasting water (oil, electricity, etc.) / by turning off
the electricity when we leave a room / etc. 15. by asking knowledgeable questions
16. by exercising 17. by reading aloud to them from a very young age
18. by conserving the earth’s resources / by working for peace / etc.
□ EXERCISE 18, p. 386. Using WITH. (Chart 13-6)
ANSWERS:
2. with a needle and thread
3. with a saw
4. with a thermometer
5. with a spoon
6. with a shovel
7. with a hammer
8. with a pair of scissors
□ EXERCISE 19, p. 386. Using BY or WITH. (Chart 13-6)
ANSWERS:
3. with 7. by 11. with
4. by 8. with 12. by
5. with 9. by 13. with
6. with 10. by 14. by
Notes and Answers 173
CHART 13-7: USING GERUNDS AS SUBJECTS; USING IT INFINITIVE
• Point out that a gerund phrase as subject is singular and takes a singular verb, even if the
gerund is followed by a plural noun: Reading books is fun. In this sentence, reading, not books,
determines the verb.
• Confusion may arise in cases where the -ing word is used as an adjective to modify a noun:
Reading books (i.e., books that teach reading skills) are usually collections of essays and stories.
(Some grammars analyze this use of reading as a gerund used as a noun adjunct; others view it as
a present participle used as an adjective.)
Other examples:
Washing (gerund) dishes isn’t much fun. vs. Washing (adjectival) machines are expensive.
Helping (gerund) other people is important. vs. Helping (adjectival) verbs are also called
auxiliary verbs.
The text does not address these grammar points, but questions may arise.
• Keep the students’ focus on the two patterns presented in examples (a) and (b). Infinitives
can, of course, be used as the subject of a sentence: To ride horses is fun. The text chooses to
emphasize the more common pattern that uses a gerund as the subject. It is also possible for a
gerund to follow it: It is fun riding horses. Again the text chooses to emphasize the more common
pattern of it infinitive.
□ EXERCISE 20, p. 387. Gerunds as subjects. (Chart 13-7)
ANSWERS:
2. Making friends isn’t hard. 6. Cheating during a test is wrong.
3. Cooking rice is easy. 7. Is living in an apartment expensive?
4. Taking a long walk is relaxing. 8. Living in a foreign country isn’t easy.
5. Is learning a second language difficult? 9. Making new friends takes time.
□ EXERCISE 21, p. 387. IT infinitive. (Chart 13-7)
ANSWERS:
2. It’s fun to play tennis. 3. It’s important to be polite to other people. 4. It’s
interesting to learn about other cultures. 5. It’s dangerous to walk alone at night 6. Is it
easy to ride a motorcycle? 7. It isn’t much fun to have a cold. 8. It takes a long time to
learn a second language. 9. It takes three minutes to cook
□ EXERCISE 22, p. 387. Gerunds as subjects; IT infinitive. (Chart 13-7)
Responding students may need to leave their books open for this exercise.
SAMPLE ANSWER:
1. B: It’s more fun to go to a movie than (to) study at the library.
A: I agree. Going to a movie is more fun than studying at the library.
174 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-8: IT INFINITIVE: USING FOR (SOMEONE)
• This chart expands the it infinitive pattern by adding for (someone). This is a frequent and
productive sentence type, especially in spoken English.
□ EXERCISE 23, p. 388. Using FOR (SOMEONE). (Chart 13-8)
ANSWERS:
2. for teachers to speak clearly
3. for us to hurry
4. for a fish to live out of water
5. for students to budget their time carefully
6. for a child to sit still for a long time
7. for my family to eat turkey on Thanksgiving Day [Thanksgiving occurs on the fourth
Thursday in November in the U.S. and on the second Monday of October in Canada.]
8. for people to take trips to the moon
9. for me to understand Mr. Alvarez
10. for guests to wait until the hostess begins to eat
11. for the bride to feed the groom the first piece of wedding cake
12. for me to understand our teacher
□ EXERCISE 24, p. 390. Gerunds as subjects; IT infinitive. (Charts 13-7 and 13-8)
ANSWERS:
2. Reading newspapers is important/fun/educational/relaxing. OR
It is important/fun/educational/relaxing to read newspapers.
3. Studying grammar is easy/hard/important. OR
It is easy/hard/important to study grammar.
4. Playing tennis is easy/hard/exciting/fun/relaxing. OR
It is easy/hard/exciting/fun/relaxing to play tennis.
5. Stealing cars is against the law/dangerous. OR
It is against the law/dangerous to steal cars.
6. Listening to a two-hour speech is boring/hard/impossible/a waste of time. OR
It is boring/hard/impossible/a waste of time to listen to a two-hour speech.
7. Predicting the exact time of an earthquake is impossible. OR
It is impossible to predict the exact time of an earthquake.
8. Forgetting someone’s name is embarrassing. OR
It is embarrassing to forget someone’s name.
9. Walking alone through a dark forest at night is dangerous/frightening. OR
It is dangerous/frightening to walk alone through a dark forest at night.
10. Going fishing with your friends is fun/relaxing. OR
It is fun/relaxing to go fishing with your friends.
11. Knowing the meaning of every word in a dictionary is impossible. OR
It is impossible to know the meaning of every word in a dictionary.
12. Being honest with yourself at all times is hard/important. OR
It is hard/important to be honest with yourself at all times.
13. Changing a flat tire is easy/hard. OR
It is easy/hard to change a flat tire.
14. Visiting museums is boring/educational/exciting/fun/relaxing. OR
It is boring/educational/exciting/fun/relaxing to visit museums.
15. Logging on to the Internet is easy/fun/exciting/educational/relaxing. OR
It is boring/a waste of time to log on to the Internet.
□ EXERCISE 25, p. 390. IT FOR (SOMEONE) infinitive. (Charts 13-7 and 13-8)
One of the main points of this exercise is to show how the for (someone) phrase qualifies
generalizations, i.e., limits them.
SAMPLE RESPONSES: 2. It’s easy for children to learn how to swim. It’s easy for some
people to change a flat tire. 3. It’s fun for most people to visit new places. It’s fun for
most people to learn how to swim. It’s fun for most people to spend time with friends.
4. It’s important for students to be on time for class. It’s important for children to obey
their parents. It is important for anyone to spend time with friends. 5. It’s impossible
for anyone to live on the planet Mars. It’s impossible for some people to learn how to swim.
It is impossible for some people to change a flat tire. It’s impossible for anyone to predict
the exact time of an earthquake. 6. It’s enjoyable for anyone to spend time with friends.
It’s enjoyable for most people to visit new places. It’s enjoyable for children to learn how to
swim. 7. It’s interesting for most people to observe animals in their wild habitat. It’s
interesting for most people to visit new places. 8. It’s possible for most people to
change a flat tire. It’s possible for most people to learn how to swim.
□ EXERCISE 26, p. 391. IT FOR (SOMEONE) infinitive. (Charts 13-7 and 13-8)
SAMPLE RESPONSES:
1. It is easy for David to build a chair.
2. It’s traditional for the man to ask the woman to marry him.
3. It’s impossible for me to read your mind. [to read your mind to guess your thoughts]
4. It takes an hour for Guido to deliver the morning newspapers.
5. It’s sensible for people to exercise each day.
6. Is it necessary for you to play the stereo so loudly?
7. It’s important for children to go to bed early.
8. It’s difficult for me to call you during the day.
□ EXERCISE 27, p. 391. IT TAKE infinitive. (Charts 5-13 and 13-8)
The pattern with it take infinitive is introduced in Chapter 5 in connection with
questions with how long. The pattern is reviewed and expanded upon here to include take
time (or an expression of time, e.g., days, years, months), money, patience, courage, skill, hard
work, stamina, and determination (for someone) infinitive phrase. In other words, this
exercise presents information not covered in a chart by teaching vocabulary used in the
pattern with it take. You might want to make special note for your students of the
common words used in this pattern.
SAMPLE RESPONSES:
1. It takes time for young adults to decide what career to follow.
2. It takes a lot of money to build a house.
3. It takes three minutes to poach an egg.
4. How long does it take to cross the English Channel?
5. It will take many years for nations to learn to live together in peace.
6. It takes patience to learn to knit. It takes courage to live by your principles. It takes
skill to ride a horse.
7. It takes hard work for construction workers to erect a building.
8. It takes stamina and determination to compete in the Olympic Games.
Notes and Answers 175
□ EXERCISE 28, p. 392. Using IN ORDER TO. (Chart 13-9)
ANSWERS:
3. . . . hospital in order to visit
4. (no change)
5. . . . today in order to deposit
6. . . . drugstore in order to buy
7. . . . dictionary in order to find
8. . . . cafeteria in order to eat
9. (no change)
□ EXERCISE 29, p. 392. Using (IN ORDER) TO. (Chart 13-9)
ANSWERS:
2. C (in order) to listen 5. I (in order) to see 8. F (in order) to chase
3. D (in order) to find 6. B (in order) to reach 9. H (in order) to get
4. A (in order) to keep 7. J (in order) to look 10. G (in order) to help
□ EXERCISE 30, p. 393. Expressing purpose with TO and FOR. (Chart 13-9)
ANSWERS:
3. to 7. to 10. for 13. for
4. for 8. for 11. to 14. for
5. for 9. to 12. to 15. to
6. to
□ EXERCISE 31, p. 393. Expressing purpose with TO and FOR. (Chart 13-9)
Whichever pattern students use is fine: infinitives or for-phrases.
SAMPLE ANSWERS: 1. I went to the supermarket for some bread / to get some bread.
2. I need to go to the bookstore for some notebook paper / to get some notebook paper.
3. I went to the post office for some stamps / to get some stamps. 4. I went to the
health clinic for an appointment with a dermatologist / to see a dermatologist. 5. I
reached into my pocket/purse for some change / to get some change for the candy machine.
6. I came to this school to study English / for the Intensive English Program.
176 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
CHART 13-9: EXPRESSING PURPOSE WITH IN ORDER TO AND FOR
• Common mistakes are:
INCORRECT: She came here for studying English.
INCORRECT: She came here for to study English.
INCORRECT: She came here for study English.
• There is an exception in which for is followed by a gerund to express purpose. The phrase be
used for expresses the typical or general purpose of a thing. In this case, the preposition for is
followed by a gerund: A saw is used for cutting wood. Also possible: A saw is used (in order) to cut
wood.
• This might be a good place to review the information in the footnote on p. 370 regarding
stop gerund compared to stop infinitive of purpose.
COMPARE: I stopped reading and took a walk.
I was reading, but around three o’clock I stopped (in order) to take a walk.
10. . . .TV in order to improve
11. (no change)
12. . . . university in order to ask
13. . . . shoulder in order to get
14. (no change)
15. . . . bookstore in order to buy
7. I borrowed some money from ( . . . ) for gas [BrE: petrol] for my car / to buy gas for my
car. 8. I stopped at the service station for gas / to get gas. 9. I play tennis for
exercise / to get exercise. 10. I had to go out last night for a meeting / to go to a
meeting.
Notes and Answers 177
CHART 13-10: USING INFINITIVES WITH TOO AND ENOUGH
• Review the meanings and spellings of to, too, and two, all of which have the same pronunciation.
to a preposition or part of an infinitive.
too (1) an adverb meaning “also” that comes at the end of a sentence; or
(2) as in this chart, a modifier that means “excessive.”
two the number 2.
• Note that too is not used before adjectives immediately followed by nouns:
CORRECT: We didn’t go swimming because the water was too cold.
INCORRECT: We didn’t go swimming because of the too cold water.
There is another possible but infrequent pattern with too and a singular count noun:
too adjective a noun.
Example: It was too hot a day for hard work in the sun.
• A common problem results from learners attempting to use too as an intensifier meaning “very,
very.”
INCORRECT: We all enjoyed the scenery a lot. It was too beautiful!
Explain that the use of too implies a negative result (i.e., something can’t happen, as in This ring
is too expensive. I can’t buy it.) and does not mean “very, very.” (In a negative sentence, of
course, the opposite is true and too implies a positive result: The ring wasn’t too expensive. I could
buy it.)
• Enough means “sufficient or sufficiently.” It conveys the presence of the necessary extent,
amount, or degree of something to produce a certain result. The result is expressed in the
infinitive phrase: I’m tall enough to touch the ceiling. My being able to touch the ceiling is the result
of the fact that I have the necessary height.
Explaining the meaning of enough by using synonyms or definitions is not easy. Usually
students can understand its meaning simply from the examples in the charts and exercises.
• Perhaps you can think of a way to illustrate too and enough in the classroom. One idea would
be to pick a high spot in the room, maybe the top of a window. Who is tall enough to touch it?
Who isn’t tall enough? Who is too short? Is anyone too short to touch the top of the window?
□ EXERCISE 32, p. 394. TOO and ENOUGH infinitive. (Chart 13-10)
Note the instructions to use too in items 1–6 and enough in 7–10.
PART I. ANSWERS: 2. I was too sleepy to finish my homework last night.
3. This jacket is too small for me to wear. 4. Mike was too busy to go to his aunt’s
housewarming party. 5. I live too far from school to walk there. 6. Some movies
are too violent for children to watch.
PART II. ANSWERS: 8. I’m not strong enough to lift a horse. 9. It’s not warm
enough today for us to go outside in shorts and sandals. 10. I wasn’t sick enough to
stay home and miss work, but I didn’t feel good all day.
□ EXERCISE 33, p. 394. TOO and ENOUGH infinitive. (Chart 13-10)
ANSWERS:
3. too busy to answer 6. large enough to hold
4. early enough to get 7. too big to get
5. too full to hold 8. big enough to hold
□ EXERCISE 34, p. 395. TOO and ENOUGH infinitive. (Chart 13-10)
ANSWERS:
3. Ø . . . enough 7. Ø . . . enough
4. too . . . Ø 8. Ø . . . enough
5. too . . . Ø 9. too . . . Ø
6. too . . . Ø
□ EXERCISE 35, p. 396. TOO and ENOUGH infinitive. (Chart 13-10)
POSSIBLE COMPLETIONS:
1. . . . to touch the ceiling.
2. . . . to touch the ceiling.
3. . . . to lift a horse.
4. . . . to do my homework.
5. . . . to call my mother.
6. . . . for me to buy.
7. . . . to buy a Mercedes.
8. . . . to finish my homework.
9. . . . to stay home alone . . . to have his or her own apartment.
10. . . . to have conversations about the weather . . . to understand everything I hear
□ EXERCISE 36, p. 396. Review: gerunds vs. infinitives. (Chapter 13)
ANSWERS:
3. (in order) to look 15. to get . . . sleep
4. to go/going swimming 16. staring . . . thinking . . . to be
5. (in order) to invite 17. to work . . . going/to go . . . looking . . . doing
6. going 18. Asking . . . getting . . . to make . . . keep . . .
7. listening to be
8. drawing 19. forgetting to call
9. to understand . . . to improve 20. to travel/traveling . . . to go/going
. . . to be . . . Lecturing 21. (in order) to make
10. to feed 22. taking
11. to feed . . . getting 23. cracking . . . to be
12. feeding 24. to shake . . . looking (also possible: to look)
13. (in order) to earn . . . to take 25. to stand/standing . . . to move/moving
14. to take 26. Smiling
□ EXERCISE 37, p. 398. Error analysis. (Chapter 13)
As in other error-analysis exercises, almost all the entries are adapted from actual student
writing. Students might like to know that students before them made the same errors they
make but have gone on to successful second-language acquisition. Making errors is just
part of the process—you could compare it to learning a musical instrument. No one can sit
down and play perfectly from the beginning or just from studying a manual. It takes
practice, practice, practice (mistakes and all)—as does language learning.
178 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
ANSWERS: 2. I went to the store to get some toothpaste. 3. Did you go to
shopping yesterday? 4. I usually go to the cafeteria for to get a cup of coffee in the
morning. (OR: . . . to the cafeteria for to get a cup of coffee) 5. Bob needed to go
downtown yesterday. 6. I cut the rope with a knife. 7. I thanked him for driving
me to the airport. 8. It is difficult to learn a second language. 9. It is important to
get an education. 10. Timmy isn’t old enough to get married. 11. Do you want to
go to swimming tomorrow? 12. I went to the bank to cash a check. 13. I was too
sleepy to finish my homework last night. 14. It is easy to do this exercise. / This
exercise is easy to do. 15. Last night I was too tired to do my homework. 16. I’ve
never gone to sailing, but I would like to. 17. Reading it is one of my hobbies.
18. The man began to build a wall around his garden. 19. . . . you learn a lot about
other countries and cultures. 20. Instead of settling down in one place 21. My
grandmother likes to fish / likes to fishing / likes to go fishing. 22. Mary would like to
have a big family.
□ EXERCISE 38, p. 399. Speaking. (Chapter 13)
Brainstorm ideas for topics before dividing the class into groups. In organizing the groups,
make one student the time-keeper.
□ EXERCISE 39, p. 399. Writing. (Chapter 13)
As a preliminary to the assignment, ask students what activities they enjoy and discuss what
they could write about them. Help the students get started on this assignment by showing a
lot of interest in their activities and asking a lot of questions about them.
□ EXERCISE 40, p. 400. Review: verb forms. (Chapters 1 → 13)
This practice contains almost all of the verb forms introduced from the beginning of the
text through this chapter.
ANSWERS:
2. went 26. turned
3. is 27. to go
4. manufactures 28. was closed/had closed
5. are made 29. was locked
6. has 30. didn’t have
7. needs 31. wasn’t dressed
8. to meet 32. was wearing
9. travels 33. am I going to do / will I do /
10. went should I do / can I do
11. (in order) to meet 34. standing
12. speaks 35. decided
13. knows 36. to get
14. doesn’t know 37. started
15. was staying 38. walking/to walk
16. had 39. knocking
17. was staying 40. (in order) to ask
18. was getting 41. to ask
19. heard 42. reached
20. walked 43. pushed
21. opened 44. waited
22. found 45. came
23. took 46. took
24. looked 47. got
25. saw 48. were surprised
Notes and Answers 179
49. saw 60. walked
50. was wrapped 61. looked
51. thought 62. didn’t have to understand
52. trying 63. (in order) to figure
53. to explain 64. didn’t have to say
54. didn’t know 65. grabbed
55. nodded 66. took
56. didn’t smile / wasn’t smiling 67. led
57. looked 68. is still embarrassed
58. smiled 69. laughs
59. reached 70. tells
□ EXERCISE 41, p. 402. Review of verb forms: writing. (Chapters 1 → 13)
Students can model their composition on the passage in Exercise 40. Discuss embarrassing
experiences with your class to help them get started on this assignment. Think of an
embarrassing experience you have had and share that. You could also volunteer to write a
composition yourself and bring it to class to share with the students. Students often like the
idea that the teacher is doing the same writing assignment. It also helps the teacher
understand writing assignments from the students’ perspective and how s/he can best help
students produce good compositions.
180 CHAPTER 13, Gerunds and Infinitives
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